A Graduate Teacher Preparation Model for Revealing, Developing,
and Demonstrating Content Knowledge for Social Studies Certification

R. William Sowders
Johns Hopkins University

     The preparation of K-12 teachers has been the focus of both educational and political debate during the last decade. In 2009, Linda Darling-Hammond wrote that “In the last ten years there's been a lot of research done about what makes a difference for student achievement, and it's now clear that the single most important determinant of what students learn is what their teachers know. Teacher qualifications, teacher's knowledge and skills, make more difference for student learning than any other single factor.”  As teaching is a key influence on K-12 learning, then ensuring that beginning teachers are ready to meet high standards is of paramount importance. In the 2003 summary report prepared for the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (NCTAF), entitled No Dream Denied: A Pledge to America’s Children, the authors state that the nation embraces a consensus that well prepared teachers are the most valuable resource that a community can provide to its young people. In the report the Commission advocated the establishment of fundamental benchmark indicators. One was that beginning teachers must “possess a deep understanding of the subjects they teach” and, further they must be actively engaged in the content of their chosen field and the allied methods of inquiry (NCTAF, 2003).
     The beliefs that teachers are better prepared to teach and that students achieve better when their teachers possess strong content expertise is widely held and operationalized in practice. The relationship between a teacher’s content preparation and student performance is well established in some of the disciplines. In a review of research (Wayne & Youngs, 2003), found that this relationship was especially true in mathematics but inconclusive in other subject areas. Similarly, Monk (1994) concluded that “teacher content preparation as measured by the number of courses a teacher took in the subject area being taught is positively related to how much mathematics and science students learn at the secondary level.”  Similarly, an international study conducted at the elementary level found that “third grade students in Belize learn more mathematics when their teachers have a strong command of the subject.”  The authors suggest further that this finding should be weighted heavily when hiring decisions are made (Mullins, Murnane, & Willett, 1996).
     Although there is not as clear evidence in the social science arena that links student achievement with content preparation, the wisdom of practice dictates that content expertise must be a part of teacher preparation. Dumas, Evans, and Weible (1997) conducted a study of state licensure requirements for secondary social studies teachers. They found that twenty-seven states had formulated credit hour counts in history and the social sciences ranging from a minimum of 24 credit hours to a maximum of 60. Further, the researchers stated that The National Council  for the Social Studies (NCSS) standards for the preparation of comprehensive social studies teachers call for no less than 40% of the undergraduate work be devoted to subject matter courses in history and the social sciences. They concluded that the state agency licensing requirement were generally less than those suggested by NCSS. However, a significant number of content specific credit hours in the social sciences including history, political science, and geography remains tied to credentialing.
     The important role of content expertise in teacher preparation coupled with the No Child Left Behind legislation has major implications for teacher preparation institutions. While the  debate among educators and policy makers regarding the efficacy of the legislation continues, teacher preparation institutions must get down to the business of complying with the law and to responding to research findings connecting teacher quality with content knowledge.
     For graduate teacher preparation programs, the task can be especially difficult. Typically, these programs are      designed to provide coursework in pedagogy and teaching based subject matter including working with diverse students, reading, special education, teaching methodology, human development, learning theory, curriculum, and assessment. Because subject area content preparation primarily occurs at the undergraduate level, the challenge for graduate level teacher preparation programs is to develop systems to document previously learned content knowledge and provide experiences that will increase content knowledge during the graduate program.
     This is particularly complex for teacher preparation programs that certify in general social studies rather than specific social science disciplines. The content preparation required for social studies certification is a mix based upon a survey approach to several social science disciplines including a balance of history, political science, economics, geography, and the behavioral sciences. This broad survey requirement poses obstacles for graduate programs in teacher certification as many prospective teacher candidates come to these programs with a narrow focus in their undergraduate social science preparation. Examples might include bachelor degrees in history, political science, geography, or economics. Additionally there are candidates who profess a love for history or another social science discipline but whose undergraduate major was in a non-aligned field, such as communications, theatre, or public administration. In order to accommodate these prospective candidates, graduate teacher preparation programs must create new models that will validate the required subject area content expertise. This article will describe a model (see Table 1) in a Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) program that builds structures that allow candidates to reveal, develop, and demonstrate content knowledge expertise as they seek certification in social studies.
Revealing Content Knowledge
     The first component in this model involves an interview with the prospective candidate that includes a review of all previous college work and relevant life experiences. Using the Social Studies Content Review Form (see Appendix A), the transcripts are measured for alignment with national standards set by the NCSS and state content requirements. Candidates who have undergraduate majors in the traditional social sciences such as history, political science, or geography usually fare well in this interview and transcript examination process. Others whose undergraduate coursework is from other fields may not be so fortunate. For instance, a candidate with an undergraduate major in criminal justice might be asked to take additional coursework in economics or geography. The communications major may need to take coursework in United States and world history.
     In order to earn certification, any needed supplemental content coursework must be taken in addition to pedagogical courses in the MAT program. In a sample population of social studies candidates (N=31), twenty seven candidates (87%) needed additional content knowledge background to meet the state certification requirements in social studies. The most frequent areas cited for coursework in descending order were:  (1) History (both United States and world), (2) geography, (3) economics, (4) political science, and (5) behavioral sciences. These findings are not unusual as most candidates come into the program with majors in specific disciplines and therefore will have a deep concentration in one area rather than a broad background.
     During the admission interview process, faculty members ask probing questions to help candidates provide information and documented evidence of nontraditional educational experiences that align with the content review requirements. For example, a Civil War re-enactor for the National Park Service may demonstrate history expertise even though his or her major may have been anthropology or psychology. A business major who lacks a comparative government course, but lived in Europe working for an international bank developing public fiscal policy could well demonstrate an understanding of both economics and poetical science from a practical perspective. In this model these experiences will be accepted in lieu of traditional coursework as long as candidates provide appropriate documentation that demonstrates depth and relevance. These kinds of real world experiences may be more valuable in teaching in the secondary classroom than coursework that is twenty years old as many applicants are career changers. Their undergraduate coursework may not reflect recent scholarship in the social sciences. However, their life and work experiences may align closely with content requirements.
     The interview sessions can be discouraging for enthusiastic candidates who are suddenly faced with coursework beyond the 39-credit MAT program they had anticipated. The interviews can be stressful for university personnel as well, as the potential candidates may possess the right dispositions that are needed in school classrooms but lack the documented content preparation.
     Following the transcript and life experience review, a candidate’s readiness to enter the program is considered. Any candidate who is deficient in more than twelve undergraduate course credits content is deferred at this point and counseled to complete additional coursework. Options include courses at community colleges and four-year institutions, and/or the College Level Examination Program (CLEP).
     Once a candidate meets the threshold of fewer than twelve credits, he or she may be offered admission to the program with the understanding that all of the content requirements for social studies certification must be met before conferral of the MAT degree and recommendation to the state for certification. A candidate in this position has several options for meeting this shortfall. The most common recommendation is to follow the same pathways as the candidate who has more than 12 credits, as described above.
Developing Content Knowledge
      University personnel are keenly aware of the financial implications of asking potential candidates to take additional coursework. This is especially true in MAT program options that require candidates to give up outside employment and to complete an unpaid internship. In recognition of this, a second component of the model was developed. All candidates are required to take a three-credit content rich course that is part of the MAT coursework. The course, Special Topics in Secondary Social Studies, allows students to explore specific topics in social studies through seminar discussions, research, projects, and application assignments. Topics vary each semester based upon current issues and the needs of the students. Recent course content has focused on sustainability of the environment, urban demographics, and social justice. A key element to the success of this course has been collaboration with the university’s arts and sciences departments who lend their content expertise as part of the instruction. As noted in the NCTAF report, “Teacher candidates take their academic content courses outside schools and colleges of education, it is critical that the whole university take responsibility for this aspect of teaching quality. Faculty in the arts and sciences must be involved in teacher preparation in close collaboration with the education faculty.”  Arts and sciences faculty participate in the Special Topics course and bring subject matter scholarship and research findings to the class. This allows candidates to develop further their own expertise and knowledge of the content and methods of inquiry in the social sciences.
     In addition, under the guidance of the course instructor, candidates are required to complete two content-based research projects. The first project is developed in response to deficiencies revealed during the transcript review or in a Content Self-Assessment that all candidates complete at the beginning of the course. The Content Self-Assessment enables candidates to rate their level of knowledge on an array of social studies topics aligned with national and local social studies standards.
     The second content-based research project required for the course is known as the Signature Assignment and was developed in response to two of the content standards set forth by the NCSS. These are Science Technology, and Society and Global Connections. The project requires candidates to integrate concepts from these two standards that demonstrate content knowledge. Indicators were identified for each standard. The format of the project is negotiated with the instructor. Each project is scored by faculty members on a 3-point standard scale that was adopted by the Department of Teacher Preparation for all unit-wide assessments used for NCATE accreditation. For 2006, for the Science, Society, and Technology standard, the composite score of candidates was 2.60, whereas the composite score for the Global Connections standard was 2.85.
     Candidates can also develop content knowledge through the development of an extensive unit plan as a requirement for their methods course. The subject matter for the unit plan varies among students according to their internship placements. However, each plan must contain the same elements: an overview, objectives taken from state and NCSS standards, lesson plans, and assessments. The NCSS standards are prescribed and must come from the themes aligned to culture, history, economics, geography and, political science. These were chosen as they are the subjects most commonly taught in the state’s social studies classes at the middle and high school levels and are the subjects for formative and exit testing. Each unit plan is scored by faculty on a 3-point standard scale mentioned above. The candidate’s scores in the 2006 sample ranged from 2.8 - 3.0 across the five areas cited above.
Demonstrating Content Knowledge
     The third component of the model focuses on the candidates’ ability to demonstrate their subject matter content knowledge in the classroom. The primary platform for this is the student teaching or internship experience. During this time candidates are observed and evaluated by university supervisors who have been identified as content area experts. At the midpoint and endpoint of the internship, each candidate is evaluated using the Social Studies Content Performance Review Form (see Appendix B) to indicate the degree to which the candidate has provided evidence of his or her ability to integrate the NCSS standards in the classroom. Supervisors evaluate candidates in several areas including:  (1) subject matter content knowledge in teaching; (2) planning; and (3) evidence of impact on student learning. Candidates are evaluated on a three-point scale. Table 2 displays the results of a 2006 sample group of candidates where the midpoint and endpoint scores have been averaged.
     One concern has been that much of the evidence is subjective in nature as is dependent upon faculty and supervisor expert opinion. In order to ensure an outside measure, the university requires that social studies certification candidates present a passing score on the Content Knowledge PRAXIS II emanation before the degree is awarded. This examination measures a candidate’s knowledge in history (both world and United States), geography, economics, political science, and the behavioral sciences. Between the years 2001 and 2006, candidates took the test at various points within the program (N=84). They scored consistently higher on the sub-tests than the state and national averages. This was especially true in the areas of world history, United States history, and government. This is especially gratifying as these are the three social studies courses required for graduation for high school students in the state.
Conclusion
     Over the last three years, the use of this model has led the teacher preparation faculty to have high confidence in candidates’ content knowledge when they leave the program to become teachers in classrooms. If one accepts the finding of the NCTAF report that well prepared teachers have a positive impact on student learning, then it is the faculty’s belief that this model contributes to this effort in a significant way. It has been instrumental in addressing the challenges of validating a candidate’s subject matter proficiency within the confines of a graduate education program that focuses on primarily on pedagogy.

References

Darling-Hammond, L. (2009).Linda Darling-Hammond: Thoughts on teacher preparation. Edutopia: What Works in Public Education. Retrieved May 2, 2009, from
http://www.edutopia.org/linda-darling-hammond-teacher-preparation#graph1.

Dumas, W., Evans, S., & Weible, T.(1997). Minimum state standards for secondary social studies teacher licensure: A national update. The Social Studies, 88, 163.

Monk, D. H. (1994). Subject area preparation of secondary mathematics and science teachers and student achievement. Economics of Education Review, 13, 121-45.

Mullins, J. E., & Willett,, J.B. (1996). The contribution of teaching and subject matter knowledge to teaching effectiveness: a multilevel analysis of longitudinal evidence from Belize. Cooperative Education Review , 40 , 139-  157.

National Commission on Teaching and America's Future. (2003). No dream denied: A pledge to America's children. Washington, DC:  National Commission on Teaching and America's Future.

Wayne, A. J., & Youngs, P. (2003). Teacher characteristics and student achievement gains: a review. Review of Educational Research, 73, 89-122

Tables
______________________________________________________
Table 1
Model for Revealing, Developing, and Demonstrating Content Knowledge for
Social Studies Certification

 
        Model Component                                     Implementation
________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
Table 2
NCSS Content Performance Evaluation by University Supervisors
_______________________________________________________________________

NCSS Theme                       Teaching                Planning                   Student
 or  Standard                                                                                   Learning
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Appendix A

SUPPLEMENTAL CONTENT REQUIREMENTS WORKSHEET
MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING: SECONDARY EDUCATION – SOCIAL STUDIES
 

Appendix B

Graduate Division of Education
Department of Teacher Preparation
SOCIAL STUDIES CONTENT PERFORMANCE EVALUATION FORM

During the midpoint and final evaluation meetings with the candidate, please evaluate the candidate for each NCSS standard to indicate what you have observed that provides (a) evidence of content knowledge, (b) evidence in planning, (c) evidence in teaching, and (d) evidence in producing intended student learning. Record your evaluation by checking the appropriate box. Use the following scale: 
1=Emergent    2=Proficient    3=Highly Proficient      NO=Not Observed