Two Experiments Examine Induced Anxiety, Depression, Anger and
Assertiveness that are Contrasted with the Conditions of Relaxed Music,
Role Playing and Silence and Indicate their Impacts on Cognitions
and the Emotion of Anxiety

Edward J. Murray
Carol A. Puthoff Murray
Kent State University Ashtabula

Meghan P. Murray
Alliant International University

     In clinical therapeutic settings, clients have expressed multiple negative and irrational thoughts.  Polivy's (1981) research provided insights into this process in that she used inductions and role-playing to study various emotional states.  Based on the insights of Ellis (1973) and Beck (1976), this first investigation attempted to explore the impact of emotionally induced states of anxiety, depression, assertiveness and anger in conjunction with a relaxed condition of classical music upon cognitive thoughts.
     The second experiment induced the conditions of anxiety, depression, aggression and assertiveness along with the manipulation of a control condition (sitting quietly alone) and a frustrating role-playing encounter. These various manipulated variables were examined in relationship to the dependent variable of anxiety.   
     Ellis (1973, 1975 and 1977) formulated the cognitive model.  Ellis hypothesized that the individual responded to a set of irrational beliefs.  These beliefs had the effect of attitudes in that they created an internal emotional response that leads to certain consequences or behaviors; Ellis argued that the same irrational beliefs can trigger different emotional reactions which produced distinct behaviors.  Ellis reasoned that a person generates attitudes of awfulizing, not standing it, shoulding, musting, undeserving and, damning. These various attitudes have upset people by producing the internal emotional response of putting down others, putting down themselves, and putting down the environment in which they live. Ellis concluded that these internal emotions resulted respectively in the separate behaviors of anger, anxiety, and depression.  Definitely, Ellis's cognitive model has included the three aspects of attitudes, namely, the cognitive, affective and conative.
     Ellis further hypothesized that when an individual was experiencing anger, anxiety, and depression, this person frequently attributed the emotional misery to external pressure and perceived that these feelings were outside his or her ability to change or control.  In other words, Ellis's cognitive model conceptualized the behaviors of anger, anxiety, and depression as related to an external locus of control.      
     In contrast to the results of anger, anxiety, and depression, Ellis has described the alternative behavior of assertiveness.  Assertiveness flowed from potential multiple positive attitudes. New cognitions, emotions, and behavioral rehearsal were capable of creating the climate for assertiveness.  With an increase in self- acceptance, Ellis further hypothesized that the individual was more capable of assertive behavior and changes in emotions and cognitions.  An increase in any dimension of assertiveness resulted in lower anger, anxiety, and depression.          
     Further insights into the cognitive model were provided by Marty Seligman (1975).  Seligman's contribution was recognized and referenced in Anxiety Disorders and Phobias (Beck, l985).  Seligman's (1975) approach started with the variable of locus of control and hypothesized that the lack of an internal locus of control resulted in negative cognitions, emotions, and motivation.  Through experimental procedures, he manipulated an organism's capability to control outcomes.  For example, Seligman (l975) administered inescapable shock to dogs and after a while the dogs did not escape the shock, when they were given the opportunity. The results from this experiment, argued Seligman, were similar to depression.  In another experimental design, he exposed hungry rats, who had learned to bar press for food, to unpredictable shock.  These rats stopped bar pressing and huddled in a corner displaying chronic fear and anxiety.
     On the surface, these experiments appeared to reflect aspects of the classical conditioning model. However with humans Seligman argued that these experiences influenced a negative cognitive set.  He reasoned that a healthy developmental experience was consistently synchronic.  In other words, the responses made to stimuli produced productive and effective outcomes. During childhood, an asynchronic environment created a climate in which responding did not matter and helplessness resulted.  The lack of environmental control had the consequence of helplessness that produced a negative cognitive set (the idea that outcomes are uncontrollable) and simultaneously influenced the emotional and motivational structures.  The final outcomes were either depression or anxiety.
     Seligman argues his cognitive model of depression and anxiety included both a negative cognitive set and an emotional disorder; however, he never combined these two constructs into the unified concept of attitudes.  His discussion indicated an awareness of the simultaneity of negative cognitions and emotions that resulted in either depression or anxiety but his argumentation never combined the cognitive and emotional into one unified theoretical framework.         
     How did Seligman's cognitive model address the construct of anger and  assertiveness?  Seligman's approach to anger and assertiveness was clinical.  From a therapeutic perspective, he sighted clinical data that showed the effectiveness of anger in response to systematic harassment.  He concluded that the expression of anger broke up depression.  The clinical setting use for assertiveness applied the principles of rehearsal and role playing.  For Seligman, these techniques had the effect of producing powerful and positive outcomes.  Both anger and assertiveness re-established an internal locus of control, which resulted in positive outcomes.  He did not directly discuss how a change in locus of control and outcomes affected the negative cognitive set and emotions.  However, implicit in his writing was the conclusion that a change toward internal locus of control positively influenced a change in self- cognitions and emotions; therefore, the cycles of depression and anxiety were broken. 
     Ellis, (1973) and Beck, (1967) originated their cognitive models with the emphasis on cognitive attitudes.  On the other hand, Seligman (l975) began with behavioral experiences of no control that developmentally influenced the individual's cognitions. Seligman's starting point was different but the conclusions were similar in that increased self-esteem and internal locus of control enhanced assertive behavior and decreased the possibility of uncontrollable outcomes with the positive result of lowered depression and anxiety.  Again, Seligman's cognitive model was compatible with Ellis (l973) and Beck's (1976) theoretical approach. All of these models stressed the reciprocal relationship between self-acceptance, internal locus of control, and assertiveness with each variable enhancing the other and producing a decrease in depression and anxiety.
     Beck's (1967, 1976, 1979, and 1985) cognitive model claimed that specific differential cognitive sets were respectively related to depression, anxiety, anger, and assertiveness.  He also postulated that a change in cognitions produced a change in motivation and affect.
     Depression consisted of a cognitive triad in that the patient views himself, his future and his experiences in a negative manner.  His vision of himself was characterized by the qualities of defective, inadequate or deprived.  These negative self-concepts helped produce and trigger depression.  These cognitions lead to the classification of himself as undesirable and worthless. Experiences also received negative interpretations.  The world was making exorbitant demands and presenting unsurpassable obstacles to prevent goal attainment.  With the present environment appearing negative, all future anticipations were predicted in terms of hardship, frustration, and deprivation.  These negative cognitions influenced the individual's emotions and ultimately produced various degrees of depression.  The chain reaction from these cognitions was circular.  His negative cognitions lead to sadness and self- criticism that then produced further sadness and negative ideations about experiences and the environment.  For the individual, the vicious cycle was continual with the negative self-concept playing a causal role in helping to produce depression. (Beck, 1967, 1976, 1979 and 1985.)
     Beck (1967 and 1976), defined depression on a continuum that included these semantic differentials: mild, moderate, and severe.  He argued that depression could be on a continuum with normal behavior or could be categorically different.  This question was unanswerable in the literature.
     Anxiety neuroses related to three cognitive sets, which were danger, harm and fear (Beck, 1976).  The individual had repeated thoughts about dangerous or harmful events. He reasoned that these anxiety-producing thoughts were valid.  These experiences and stimuli were generalized so that almost any sound, movement, or environmental change was judged to be dangerous.  These processes also had a cycle effect in that threatening ideations produced anxiety and increase anxiety generated further threatening cognitions.  In the midst of these cognitive and affective experiences, the individual frequently judged that he lacked the ability to control himself and was an ineffective problem solver.  In this model locus of control and self-concept varied with the degree of anxiety.  The variables of self-concept and locus of control decreased with an increase in anxiety.  Specifically, the self-concept decreased because of negative self- criticism, which pertained to specific flaws.  When the individual's lack of control and negative self-concept became too extreme, the individual had passed from anxiety to depression.  At this point, the negative self-concept took over and fueled the depression by creating negative schemata about the self that was global in nature.  
     Finally, Beck (1985) suggested that the cognitions, which influenced anger were concerned with the violation of rights, rules, and principles and with the blame worthiness of the offensive agent.  The individual was less concerned with danger to himself.  The cognitions focused on three attitudes areas:  (1) the experience was labeled serious and negative, (2) the experience was not considered dangerous, and (3) the offense and offender were judged wrongful.
     The components of Beck's cognitive model related to depression, anxiety, and anger had some similarities with Ellis's (1973, 1975 and 1977) model.  The cognitions pertaining to anger were almost identical.  The cognitions related to depression in both Beck and Ellis's models definitely had a negative interpretation of the environment, however, in Beck's model, the negative interpretation of the present and past environment combined with negative self-criticism to produce more depression.  These functions appeared to combine Ellis's cognitive processes for both anxiety and depression.  Beck's cognitions for anxiety reflected a continual concern about harm, loss and danger.  These ideations were most probably integrating Horney's (1950) construct of anxiety.  For her, anxiety flowed from the cognition that the world was hostile and a hostile world created an environment of ever present harm and danger.          
     Implicit in the previous discussion of Beck's (1976) model was the reciprocal relationship between assertiveness and an increase in self-acceptance combined with an increase in internal locus of control.  The assertive techniques were used to break through both the helplessness of depression and the dangerousness of anxiety.  The rehearsal and role playing techniques of assertiveness also changed the cognitive focus from injustice and blame worthiness of the agent to a more realistic and valid vision of the environment.
These last observations showed the transformation from anger to assertiveness.           
     The various theoretical models emphasized important qualities of attitudes.  The cognitive, affective, and conative aspects of attitudes were constantly stressed. These models also focused on the centrality of the various conditions in that changes in attitudes created a new way of looking at life and effected self-concept and locus of control.  Finally, these models pointed out the connectedness of cognition elements. A change in one element frequently influenced a change in another element.  Throughout this discussion, the reciprocal relationship of attitudes and variables related to specific attitudes was delineated.  All these models reflected key criteria for attitudes
     These commonalities were observed by Allport, (1968), when he identified that a "significant revolution" was in progress. He called the change " attitudinal" therapy and applied this concept to diverse authors like Adler, Erikson, Horney, Maslow, and Rogers.  Beck (1976) added Albert Ellis to this list.  This evaluator judged that the list was incomplete without the entries of Seligman and Beck.  
Method
Experiment 1
     The subjects were 120 psychology students attending Kent State University in Ashtabula, Ohio.  The total number of subjects were divided evenly between male and female.  All subjects were randomly assigned to one of five conditions.
     A 5 X 2 factorial design was used.  The independent variables consisted of four induced attitudes sets and a relaxed condition of classical music (control condition).  The music came from Mozart and the movie, Amadeus.  Sex of subject was controlled in the design in which 12 females and 12 males were randomly assigned to each manipulated condition.  The control condition listened to seven minutes of Mozart’s music through the sound tract of Amadeus. 
     The manipulated and induced attitudes were anxiety, depression, assertiveness and anger. Anxiety was induced through seven statements from Beck's (1976) checklist, which through factor analysis was the best predictor of anxiety. Depression was induced though seven statements from Beck's checklist, which through factor analysis was the best predictors of depression.  Anger was induced through seven statements from Ellis's (1977) Anger:  How to Live With It.  Assertiveness was induced through seven statements from Lang and Jukerbowski (1976) Responsible Assertive Behaviors.   
     The induction procedure was read three times for seven minutes by a female coach, while the subject concentrated on the seven attitude statements.  Then the coach said, "as part of our study, you are asked to seriously role play your cognition experiences.  You are asked to role-play not a character but an emotion reflected in some cognitive attitudes.  The emotions expressed by these attitudes are the following conditions:"  At this time the appropriate cognitions are read to the subject.  These emotions are listed below under depression, anxiety, anger and assertiveness.
     The coach continued to read, "to help put you in touch with that emotions, we will do an exercise.  Sit back, close your eyes and relax.  Remember a time when you were feeling (appropriate cognitions will again read to the subject.)  Picture a time in your mind when that emotion was the strongest.  Remember your surroundings.  Were you inside or outside? ( If outside, see * below).  Remember the specifics of your surroundings.  If you were inside, remember the room; the furniture; the walls.  Did the walls have wallpaper or paint?  Can you remember the pattern or color?  Were you standing or sitting?  Picture the people that were with you.  Focus on one of your senses.  Do you remember any specific smells, sounds, sights, or something associated with touch at the time you were (appropriate cognitions will be repeated?" 
     *" If you were outside, picture your surroundings.  Were you with any people?  Remember who was with you.  Remember specific things.  Standing or sitting.  Focus on one of your senses that you associate with the event."
     The following statements are the cognitions for the individual emotions.
Induction Procedures
     The seven-minute induction procedure was read three times by the female coach,
Depression:
     I'm worthless.
     I'm not worthy of other people's attention or affection.
     I'll never be as good as other people are.
     I'm a social failure.
     I don't deserve to beloved.
     People don't respect me anymore.
     I will never overcome my problems.  (Beck 1987)
Anxiety:
     What if I get sick and become an invalid?
     I'm going to be injured
     What if no one reached me in time to help?
     I might be trapped.
     I am not a healthy person.
     I'm going to have an accident.
     There's something very wrong with me.   (Beck, 1987)
Anger:
     How awful for anyone to have treated me so unfairly.
     I can't stand anyone treating me in such an irresponsible and unjust manner
     You should not, must not behave that way toward me.
     Nothing ever works out the way I want it to.
     Life is always unfair to me – as it shouldn't be.
     Other people must treat everyone, but especially me, in a fair and considerate manner.
    Things must go the way I would like them to go because I need what I want.
Assertiveness:  
     Calm, just continue to relax, as long as I keep cool, I'm in control.
     Just roll with the punches.
     Don't get bent out of shape.
     You don't need to prove yourself
     There is no point in getting mad.
     Don't make more out of this than you have to.
     I'm not going to let him get to me.
     The dependent variable was a measurement of negative thoughts. After a subject experienced one of the five manipulations, they were requested to write down five automatic thoughts. It was hypothesized that some manipulations produced more negative thinking than other conditions.
Findings:
     The Chi Square of 51.79, df 9, p  .01, was highly significant.  These data indicated that the anger condition and the depressed condition contributed significantly to negative cognitions.
     In contrast to the pattern of negative cognitions, the condition of classical music produced significantly fewer negative cognitions.  Males in the Assertiveness condition also contributed to a low level of negative cognitions.  These data significantly contributed to the Chi Square findings.  These data are reported in Table 1. 
Method
Experiment 2
     The subjects were 144 psychology students, attending Kent State University Ashtabula, located in Ashtabula, Ohio. The total subject pool was evenly divided between males and females.
     A 6X2 factorial design was used. The independent variables were induced depression, anxiety, anger and assertiveness.  The induction procedure followed the pattern described in experiment 1. A control condition was created by having students sit quietly alone in a room for the duration of time that was required for the inductions. This time period was 7 minutes.  In addition to these manipulations, another experience was introduced and this procedure focused on role-playing a frustrating encounter.  The role-playing followed a specific script.  
Script
Each subject read a letter from Dr. John K. Mahan, The Dean of Kent State University Ashtabula.  The letter indicated that course credit and course curriculum were under review.  The subject read the letter and immediately, the Dean played by an older student requested that the student subject enter his office for an interview.
     The Dean actor engaged the student subject in a monologue presentation of problems subsequent to the initial cordial greeting.  The Dean actor concentrated on the problem that Kent Psychology Courses did not meet federal guidelines and course credit was removed from the transcript.  However, no tuition refunds were anticipated.  Another aspect of the monologue indicated that the loss of psychology credit dropped the student below the full time enrollment requirements.  Therefore, they were required to return financial aid and pay back grants.  The Dean actor apologized for the problems but he emphasized that the federal government had instituted this program across the country.  The Dean actor stated further that the student subject would receive a bill detailing the amount owed and without payment of the financial aid and grants, transcripts were withheld.
     Sex of subject was controlled in that 12 females and 12 males were randomly assigned to the 6 manipulated conditions.
     The dependent variable was anxiety.  This response variable was measured by the Welsh Anxiety Scale, which was taken from the MMPI.
Findings
     The ANOVA for the data was significant. The F score was 2.38, df5/128, p.04.  Sex of subject had no impact on the data. The Neuman Kuel post hoc analysis showed some significant patterns.  The role-playing of the frustrating encounter with the Dean displayed significantly less anxiety than all other conditions. The manipulations of anxiety and the control (sitting alone) showed significantly more anxiety then the role-playing, and the aggressive condition. There were no significant differences between depression, assertiveness, sitting alone and anxiety.  The means and standard deviations for these data are reported in Table 2.
Conclusion:
     The research results add support for the models of Ellis (1973, 1975 and 1977), Seligman, (1975) and Beck (1976, 1979, and 1985). The data indicate that the anger and depressed conditions produce significant levels of negative cognitions.  The negative automatic thoughts are reduced significantly in the relaxed state of classical music and in the assertive condition with the male role player.             
     These data clinically suggest that depression and anger produce high levels of negative thinking, whereas a condition of relaxation, classical music, generates few negative automatic thoughts. With reference to these findings, it is appropriate to hypothesize that a relaxed environment can counteract depression and anger.
     These data raise a question about assertive therapeutic inductions.  In the area of assertiveness, are males more responsive to assertive interventions than females?  These data certainly suggest this possible outcome. Certainly, the data pointed out that assertive training for males has potentially positive outcomes.  The clinical implications of assertive manipulations suggest that assertive inductions potentially can impact depression and anger.      
     The data from the second experiment showed some inconsistent findings in that the assertive condition produces as much anxiety as the depressive condition, the control, sitting alone, and the anxiety condition. In this second study males in the assertive condition are not different than females.    
     The data indicate that role-playing a frustrating situation can offset the emotion of anxiety. These findings also show that the state of anger has a significantly more beneficial impact than the conditions of sitting silently alone and anxiety.  
     The data from the two experiments provide a situational explanation in that both depression and anger produced significant levels of negative cognitions.  However, the condition of depression contributes to anxiety, whereas the condition of anger significantly reduced anxiety.  Another important underpinning variable probably is control.  Role–playing a frustrating event appears to provide the greatest amount of control and significantly reduces anxiety. This control factor also contributes to the aggressive condition reducing anxiety.  In contrast, the control condition of sitting in silence for 7 minutes has substantially the same impact on anxiety as the conditions of depression and anxiety. Again, sitting alone silent for 7 minutes creates a situation of little control. A final situational explanation applied to the condition of anxiety. Induced anxiety does not facilitate negative thoughts but the induced state of anxiety contributes to significant levels of response anxiety. These findings add support for Beck (1976),
Ellis,(1975)and Seligman ( 1975) in that internal locus of control gives the individual a perspective that behavioral control can lower emotional anxiety and create acclimate for more positive cognitions.     
     All these data indicate that induction procedures are a powerful influence to change cognitions, emotions and physiology.  They also show that different situations produce different responses. They certainly suggest that the variable of control has an influence. 

References
Allport, G.  (1968).  The person in psychology.  Boston:  Beacon.
Beck, A.T. (1967).  Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Beck, A. T. (1976).  Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. Markham, Ontario:  Penguin Books Canada Ltd.
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Ellis, A.  (1977). Anger:  How to live with and without it. Secaucus, New Jersey. Citadel.
Honey.  K. (1950). Neurosis and human growth: The struggle toward self-realization.  New York:  Norton.
Lange, A. J., & Jakubowski, P.  (1976). Responsible assertive behavior: Cognitive/behavior: Cognitive/behavioral procedures
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Table 1