The Socially Constructed, But Scientifically Conclusive
‘Human Genome Project’ As Presented In Biology Textbooks
Jeffrey M. Hawkins
Oklahoma State University
Introduction
In today's society, one must recognize the central importance of the discipline of biology to the life of every American, whether it is understanding new developments in health care or contributing to local environmental decisions, every citizen needs a basic understanding of the major concepts of biology, as well as an appreciation for science as a special way of knowing about our world. These were and still are the sentiments of Dr. Bruce Alberts, President of the National Academy of Sciences, and with this thought, beginning in 1985, Project 2061, the long-term science education reform initiative of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), has worked to reform science education in grades K-12 so that all high-school graduates become science literate—that is, prepared to live interesting, responsible, and productive lives in a world increasingly shaped by science and technology.
Fifteen years later, Project 2061 included two independent teams of biology teachers, science curriculum specialists, and professors of science education who evaluated each biology text, along with its teacher guide. The “y2k” evaluation examined how well the texts are likely to help students learn the important ideas and skills in the widely accepted Benchmarks for Science Literacy (developed earlier by Project 2061) and in the National Science Education Standards. This approach to evaluation was conceived and developed with funding from the National Science Foundation. Unfortunately the ideas of Dr. Alberts were found only to be ideals according to that most recent report from Project 2061 which revealed high-school biology textbooks fail to make important biology ideas any more meaningful or comprehensive to students. In addition, it was reported while the high-school textbooks scored slightly higher than the middle-grades science texts, evidence from the study points to serious shortcomings both in content coverage and instructional design. As Dr. Alberts lamented, “Sadly, it appears that our textbooks continue to be distorted by a commercial textbook market that requires that they cover the entire range of facts about biology, thereby sacrificing the opportunity to treat the central concepts in enough depth to give our students a chance to truly understand them and I'm frustrated that 15 years after the call for reform, we still don't have acceptable materials."
The antithesis for this current study and the replication and reflection of research questions used for it came from one of the conclusions found in the Project 2061 study in 2000 when it reported that one serious shortcoming dealt specifically with the content coverage of the Human Genome Project (HGP) and the biology textbooks failure to answer two valid researcher questions, “Will biology textbooks help students understand the science and implications of the human genome project and how will students understand the significance of having mapped the human genome”? According to the researchers, the textbooks information about the molecular basis of heredity was presented in piecemeal (if at all) and these ideas were seldom tied together to convey a coherent story. This point is clearly presented from Dr. George Nelson, the director of Project 2061, "Surprisingly, although the textbooks are filled with pages of vocabulary and unnecessary detail, they provide only fragmentary treatment of some fundamentally important concepts and providing bits of information about transmissions, carburetors, fuel injectors, universal joints, and cooling systems doesn’t convey a sense of a car as a mode of transportation.”
Procedure
During the summer of 2006, the researcher reviewed the evaluation reports on Project 2061 online at www.project2061.org and checked the coding and analysis for each occurrence of content related to the HGP for the 2000 studies biology textbooks for any inaccuracy, error or oversight, none were found. The four biology textbooks used in the 2000 study were borrowed from the Oklahoma State University Curriculum Materials Library and returned within a 2 week period to its librarian Donna Schwarz. During the fall 2006 semester term at Oklahoma State University, the researcher and his graduate assistant analyzed and coded each occurrence for content related to the HGP in the most recent versions of the biology textbooks used in the Project 2061 2000 study. These up-to-date four biology textbooks used in this study were borrowed from the Broken Arrow School District and returned within a 4 week period to its Science Coordinator Kristi Kargl.
This study looked at the updated versions of the same four most widely used biology textbooks in the United States that were analyzed for the Project 2061 study in 2000.
Title: Publisher, Project 2061 textbook date (Current study date)
- Biology. Prentice Hall, 1998 (2006)
- Biology: The Dynamics of Life. Glencoe, McGraw-Hill, 2000 (2005)
- Biology: Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1998 (2006)
- Modern Biology. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1999 (2006)
Data Collection
Again, the researcher replicated and reflected upon the two questions relevant for this current research, “How well will students understand the significance of having mapped the human genome and will biology textbooks help students understand the science and implications of the human genome project”? The answer to these questions will be found by reviewing the inclusion (or lack thereof) of the socially constructed, but scientifically conclusive “Human Genome Project” via content analysis of current biology textbooks.
From the textbook, Biology by Prentice Hall (2006) on page 215 in the last paragraph an introduction to the HGP is found in the sentence, “And as you will learn in Chapter 12, recent results from the Human Genome Project suggest that alternative splicing is very common in humans”. As previously mentioned, the HGP appears on the first page for chapter 12, “Perhaps the most exciting use of DNA technology in basic research is the Human Genome Project, whose goal is to map all the human DNA down to the level of its nucleotide sequences” (p. 231). Page 244 highlights the HGP in a “connection” section under the heading “Genomics” and reads, “The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an effort to map the human genome in total detail by determining the entire nucleotide sequence of human DNA. Begun in 1990, this ambitious project was expected to take 15 years but was largely finished several years ahead of schedule. The project was organized by an international, publicly funded consortium of researchers and preceded through three stages that provided progressively more detailed views of the human genome”.
The textbook Biology continues, “At the same time, HGP researchers made a similar announcement” (p. 245). Additionally, “The DNA sequences from the HGP are deposited in a database available to researchers all over the world via the Internet”. Also, on page 245, there is a mention of the HGP via a “Web/CD activity 12F The Human Genome Project: Human Chromosome 17”. Finally, a second highlight is found on the bottom half of page 245 in a “connection” section under the heading “Most of the Human Genome Does Not Consist of Genes” and reads, “The biggest surprise from the HGP is the small number of human genes”. Page 249 concludes chapter 12 and a full page is given to Dr. Eric Lander under figure 12.20 with the heading “Genomics Researcher Eric Lander Discusses the Human Genome Project”. The page has a transcription of his interview, “Previously, he supervised a team that played a leading role in the Human Genome Project (HGP)”. “Dr. Lander’s interests in applying math to biology led him to the field of genetic analysis at a time when the HGP was starting and describes the importance of the project: You can study the detailed properties of individual genes, as biologists did before the Human Genome Project and still do, or you can study how all of the components of the system interact and until the Human Genome Project, it hadn’t been possible to step back and get the big picture of the human genome”. He continues, “One of the major surprises of the HGP was the number of human genes and a gene count much lower than people had expected based on the total size of the human genome”. He concludes, “In addition to the number of genes, the HGP has yielded many other unexpected results. Dr. Lander thus sees the completion of the HGP not as an end, but as the beginning of a deeper exploration”. Finally, a question on page 249 includes the HGP as it appears, “How does the actual number of human genes compare to what was expected before the Human Genome Project”?
For the text, Biology: The Dynamics of Life by Glencoe, McGraw-Hill (2005) the HGP is presented on page one in a timeline under the date (2000) which reads, “The first draft of the Human Genome Project, sequencing all human genes, is completed”. On page 251, the first page of Unit 4 adds an update to its timeline under the date (1990), “The Human Genome Project begins to map and sequence the entire human genome”. On page 349, the textbook gives the HGP history and task, “In 1990, scientists in the United States organized the Human Genome Project (HGP). It is an international effort to completely map and sequence the human genome, the approximately 35,000-40,000 genes on the 46 human chromosomes. In February of 2001, the HGP published it working draft of the 3 billion base pairs of DNA in most human cells”. Finally, page 351 has a heading which reads, “Applications of the Human Genome Project”. The very next paragraph mentions the HGP, “One of the most important benefits of the HGP has been the diagnosis of genetic disorders”.
From the textbook, Biology: Visualizing Life by Holt, Rinehart, and Winston (2006) an “Internet connect” mentions the HGP via a website www.scilinks.org on page eleven. Page 233 has the heading which reads, “The Human Genome Project”. The following paragraph reads, “In February of 2001, scientists working on the Human Genome Project published a working draft of the human genome sequence. The Human Genome Project is a research project that has linked over 20 scientific laboratories in six countries”. Finally, surrounding the main text on the same page, the HGP appears as a “Key Term” and in the form of a question, “Summarize two major goals of the Human Genome Project” (p. 233).
For the text, Modern Biology by Holt, Rinehart, and Winston (2006) the Gene Expression chapter has a “Milestones” heading that includes the HGP in the second paragraph of the main text on page 227, “When the Human Genome Project began in 1990, and fewer than 100 human genes were known to be associated with disease”. The HGP is also mentioned surrounding the main text under the heading “Background” which reads, “On April 14, 2003, the International Human Genome Sequencing announced the successful completion of the Human Genome Project, more than two years ahead of schedule”. The paragraph concludes, “Dr. Watson was the first leader of the Human Genome Project”. Also, a “Discussion” header on the same page states, “Tell students that a notable aspect of the Human Genome Project is that all of its funds are set aside to investigate legal, ethical, and social implications for new genetic knowledge and its creations”. Finally, a “Review” question asks, “Name a practical application of the Human Genome Project”? The textbook continues with giving the reader a HGP heading on page 261 that reads, “In 1990 geneticists around the world tackled one of the most ambitious projects in scientific history-The Human Genome Project. The Human Genome Project is a research effort undertaken to sequence all of our DNA and locate within it all of the functionally important sequences, such as genes”. The next paragraph continues, “The Human Genome Project linked more than 20 scientific laboratories in six countries”. Also, “Scientists with the Human Genome Project were surprised by some of the discoveries they made”.
Modern Biology contains “Vocabulary” and four questions related to the HGP that ask, “Discuss two major goals of the Human Genome Project and summarize important insights gained from the Human Genome Project”? And, “State how information from the Human Genome Project will be applied to future prospects and relate bioinformatics, proteomics, and micro-arrays to the Human Genome Project”? (p. 261). In addition, the same page has an “Overview” that includes, “This section describes the goals and progress of the Human Genome Project and also discusses some of the ethical issues surrounding the Human Genome project”. A “Demonstration” header is presented in a question form, “Discuss how the Human Genome will help scientists manipulate some characteristics of fruits and vegetables by using genetic engineering techniques”? Also, an “Attention Grabber” header reads, “In 1986, at the beginning of the Human Genome Project, work was slow a tedious.” Finally, on page 261 as well, a “Reading Skill Builder” heading encourages using the HGP with a common pedagogy questioning technique (K-W-L) and figure 13.7 states, “Researchers with the Human Genome Project developed automated DNA sequencing machines that could determine the order of millions of base pairs per day”. The HGP on page 263 is included under the heading “Applications”, “Information from the Human Genome Project has been and will continue to be applied to different medical, industrial, commercial, and scientific purposes”. To the right of the paragraph, figure 13.8 presents, “Dr. John Carpten is a researcher at the National Human Genome Research Institute and uses the results of the Human Genome Project to study prostate cancer”. Additionally, under the “Activity” heading an explanation of the source of the DNA used in the HGP is revealed, “Composite DNA samples were taken from 5 unrelated individuals in 4 different populations around the world”. Finally, page 265 gives both sides of the debate with the HGP mentioned in the first paragraph, “The mapping of 30,000 genes as a part of the Human Genome Project was a great success”. And in the second paragraph under the heading “Background” as it reads, “The Human Genome Project has introduced a new set of controversies”.
Results
The findings of this content analysis study conducted by the researcher for each of the four current biology textbooks found the HGP presented in all four biology textbooks a total number of 58 times, with the lowest frequency (six) occurring in both Biology: The Dynamics of Life and Biology: Visualizing Life, nineteen occurrences in Biology, and the highest frequency (27) from Modern Biology. The total number of pages dedicated to the HGP ranged from a low of two in Biology: Visualizing Life, four in both Biology: The Dynamics of Life and Modern Biology, and five from Biology.
Will biology textbooks help students understand the science and implications of the human genome project? While the earlier Project 2061 study regarded the HGP content presented as “piecemeal” and “seldom tied together”, the findings of the content for this study found are represented in three of the four biology textbooks in the following passages:
In Biology, “And as you will learn in Chapter 12, recent results from the Human Genome Project suggest that alternative splicing is very common in humans” (p. 215).
In Biology, “Perhaps the most exciting use of DNA technology in basic research is the Human Genome Project, whose goal is to map all the human DNA down to the level of its nucleotide sequences” (p. 231).
In Biology, “The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an effort to map the human genome in total detail by determining the entire nucleotide sequence of human DNA. Begun in 1990, this ambitious project was expected to take 15 years but was largely finished several years ahead of schedule. The project was organized by an international, publicly funded consortium of researchers and proceeded through three stages that provided progressively more detailed views of the human genome” (p. 244).
In Biology, “The biggest surprise from the HGP is the small number of human genes”
(p. 245).
In Biology, “You can study the detailed properties of individual genes, as biologists did before the Human Genome Project and still do, or you can study how all of the components of the system interact and until the Human Genome Project, it hadn’t been possible to step back and get the big picture of the human genome” (p. 249).
In Biology, “One of the major surprises of the HGP was the number of human genes and a gene count much lower than people had expected based on the total size of the human genome”
(p. 249).
In Biology, “In addition to the number of genes, the HGP has yielded many other unexpected results” (p. 249).
In Biology: The Dynamics of Life, “The first draft of the Human Genome Project, sequencing all human genes, is completed” (p. 1).
In Biology: The Dynamics of Life, “The Human Genome Project begins to map and sequence the entire human genome” (p. 251).
In Biology: The Dynamics of Life, “It is an international effort to completely map and sequence the human genome, the approximately 35,000-40,000 genes on the 46 human chromosomes” (p. 349).
In Biology: The Dynamics of Life, “In February of 2001, the HGP published it working draft of the 3 billion base pairs of DNA in most human cells” (p. 349).
In Modern Biology, “When the Human Genome Project began in 1990, fewer than 100 human genes were known to be associated with disease” (p. 227).
In Modern Biology, “The Human Genome Project is a research effort undertaken to sequence all of our DNA and locate within it all of the functionally important sequences, such as genes” (p. 261).
In Modern Biology, “Researchers with the Human Genome Project developed automated DNA sequencing machines that could determine the order of millions of base pairs per day”
(p. 261).
In Modern Biology, “Dr. John Carpten is a researcher at the National Human Genome Research Institute and uses the results of the Human Genome Project to study prostate cancer”
(p. 261).
In Modern Biology, “The mapping of 30,000 genes as a part of the Human Genome Project was a great success” (p. 265).
How well will students understand the significance of having mapped the human genome? While the earlier Project 2061 study regarded the future significance of the human genome as a “fragmentary treatment of a fundamentally important concept”, the content found in three of four biology textbooks used in this study answers the question in the following passages:
In Biology: The Dynamics of Life, “One of the most important benefits of the HGP has been the diagnosis of genetic disorders” (p. 315).
In Biology: Visualizing Life, “In February of 2001, scientists working on the Human Genome Project published a working draft of the human genome sequence” (p. 233).
In Modern Biology, “Tell students that a notable aspect of the Human Genome Project is that all of its funds are set aside to investigate legal, ethical, and social implications for new genetic knowledge and its creations” (p. 227).
In Modern Biology, “State how information from the Human Genome Project will be applied to future prospects and relate bioinformatics, proteomics, and micro-arrays to the Human Genome Project”? (p. 261).
In Modern Biology, “Discuss how the Human Genome will help scientists manipulate some characteristics of fruits and vegetables by using genetic engineering techniques”? (p. 261).
In Modern Biology, “Information from the Human Genome Project has been and will continue to be applied to different medical, industrial, commercial, and scientific purposes”
(p. 263).
In Modern Biology, “The Human Genome Project has introduced a new set of controversies” (p. 265).
The content analysis results from this study reveal that significant improvement from the Project 2061 study for the understanding and significance of mapping the human genome were found in Modern Biology, Biology: The Dynamics of Life, and Biology: Visualizing Life. This contradicts recent biology textbook content analysis studies since 2000, including: Roseman, Kulm, and Shuttleworth 2001 and Kesidou & Roseman, 2002 that presented the one and only glaring example of the representation of mapping the human genome in earlier biology textbooks they studied (Appendix A). In addition, significant improvement from the Project 2061 study in understanding the science and implications of the HGP were presented in Biology, Biology: The Dynamics of Life, and Modern Biology. Again, this goes against the recent biology textbook content analysis research that included very limited understanding and implications of the HGP presented in Budiansky, 2001; Raloff, 2001; and Koppal & Caldwell 2004 that can be viewed in appendix B. Finally, however, for this study only two biology textbooks (Modern Biology and Biology: The Dynamics of Life) adequately answer both questions from the 2000 Project 2061 study.
For Future Research
Finally, it seems that adequate and complete coverage of the HGP has finally entered into the pages of the most recent biology textbooks according to this study. However, the biology texts do not solve the problem of “race” as a social construct. The HGP conclusively supports the notion of a single human “race”; however, the lexicon of the masses and even still in academic circles (including science) reinforces different “races”. It would be prudent and makes sense for the next step to be the content analysis of the HGP in social science textbook research that problem solves this “race” question for future research. To date, the researcher has not seen any significant study for using definitive science to deconstruct the social construct of “race” by looking at content analysis of social science textbooks.
References
AAAS Project 2061 Textbook Evaluations (2000).
Biology (2006). Prentice Hall.
Biology: The Dynamics of Life (2005). Glencoe, McGraw-Hill
Biology: Visualizing Life(2006). Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Budiansky, S. (2001). The trouble with textbooks. Prism, 24-27
Kesidou, S & Roseman, J. (2002). How well do middle school science programs measure up?
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 522-549.
Koppal, M & Caldwell, A. (2004). Meeting the challenge of science literacy. Cell Biology Education, 3(1), 25-29.
Modern Biology (2006). Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Raloff, J. (2001). Errant text: Why some schools may not want to go by the book. Science News, 159(11), 168-170.
Roseman, J, Klum, G & Shuttleworth, S. (2001). Putting textbooks to the test. ENC Focus, 8(3), 56-59. |
