The Importance of Color in Global Marketing 

Phani Tej Adidam
University of Nebraska at Omaha

Agne Reizgeviciute
Kansas State University 

INTRODUCTION
     Marketing strategists have focused a lot of their attention on price and quality as consumer choice criteria for buying and consuming products (Blackwell et al. 2005, Hawkins, 2003). What about color? Does color have any impact in this consumer buying decision? For a marketer, what does "choosing the right color" mean? Is it important?
     Consider two pertinent examples:

• Heinz introduced a line of ketchup in "funky purple" and green colors. The sales increased by 14 percent soon after this innovation, contributing $23 million to the company.
• When Wienerschnitzel added a little orange color to its buildings, the sales increased by 7 percent.

     In this paper, we focus on the importance of the right color choice in global marketing, and on issues that have to be considered before making a strategic color choice decision. First, we present color as one of the global marketer's key challenges. Second, we present certain colors as emotion triggers that are common for the majority of the humans despite their cultural differences. We show how color by itself can become either a success factor or a marketer's nightmare, by triggering desired or undesired emotions respectively. Third, we discuss examples of color preferences and color meanings in the context of various countries and cultures. Finally, we discuss colors in relation to specific products-how colors themselves can become the major factors in product's success and how particular products sometimes "demand" specific color.
Globalization, Cultural Differences and Adaptation Challenge
     In the last couple of decades, globalization has become a general tendency of the overall market (Friedman, 2000). This opened the door for new opportunities for marketers to capture additional sales and profits in foreign markets. However, it also revealed the potential dangers of under evaluating the importance of extensive market research in the foreign country. It brought to light the necessity to modify and/or adapt their marketing strategies to foreign markets.
     Strategy adaptation is necessary because of cultural differences that exist among most nations worldwide. Every nation possesses unique characteristics, which might be unknown to many foreigners. The increasing popularity of the internet offers almost any small company access to a large number of global customers. Unfortunately, even some of the large international and global businesses are unaware of some of these cultural differences, which might significantly hinder their performances. Thus, it is very important to understand these cultures in order to market a product successfully. Color is indeed one of the key cultural variables that is differently perceived by various cultures, and thus needs to be adapted in synchronization with other strategic issues.
Spice of Life
     According to Noor (2002) "Color is the spice of life. Without it, life would be tasteless, increasing the level of depression that already exists in the world." As mentioned before, marketers mostly focused on product price and quality, and ignored color for quite a long time. Perhaps, this is because of the limited extant research on color preferences. However, color has an undeniably profound effect in the business world (Cooper, 1994). Successful marketing and advertising professionals exploit color as a means for a strong brand name creation, product promotion and selling. By using color smartly and effectively, companies strive to create easily identifiable, memorable, and globally positive images. Color comes as one of the primary factors in their action plans (Noor, 2002).
COLOR AND HUMANITY
The New Age of Color
     Humans are getting more and more exposed to color. Inventions such as color television, color photography, computers, color printers, etc. all added up to the upbringing of color- sophisticated generation. New technologies allow making many color tricks such as glitter, translucence, metallics, pearlescence, and even holographic flake. Thus, marketers are also given a wider palette of colors to work with which makes it even more challenging in researching what colors, what shades of colors, and what color-effects do consumers respond more favorably to. Thorough consumer research could pin-point precisely the targeted customer's desires concerning color and future color trends.
Colors and Emotions
     Colors affect humans emotionally and even physically in a number of ways. Colors can create conditions that can cause fatigue, increase stress, decrease visual perception, damage eyesight, increase possible worker errors, and negatively affect orientation and safety (www.colormatters.com). Thus, marketers have to be very careful in choosing particular colors in order to achieve the desired effect.
     Businesses try to increase the smell and taste by adding colors to food, beverages, or even drugs. For instance, research suggests that red makes the food smell better (Kanner, 2005). Pharmaceutical businesses also avoid non-tasty or bad-smell association colors such as grey which can be associated with smoke or mold. They prefer pink and/or red that have favorable associations of sweetness and fast-acting effectiveness (Morton, 2004).
     Certain common effects of colors were observed all over the world despite cultural differences. For example, red is one of the colors that attract men. Red sends a signal to the man's brain and starts a chemical reaction inside the body resulting in epinephrine secretion and causing a faster heartbeat and body temperature increase (Noor, 2002). Thus, for instance, Victoria Secret successfully applies this knowledge and produces a wide diversity of red-tone underwear for women that significantly contribute to the company's profitability.
     A calming effect was observed in pink color. Researchers suggested painting prison cells in Pepto­Bismol pink. Indeed that helped to calm down the tested Seattle prisoners for quite a long period of time (Noor, 2002). It would also be a good strategy to apply pink as a minor accent color for baby's bedroom, bedroom wallpaper or toys targeting parents who want their newborns to stay calm. As mentioned before, the soothing effect of pink is also perceived to be functional in the pharmaceutical business. Many medicines are colored in pink to achieve the desired customer satisfaction being consistent with the commonly accepted perception.
     Other colors in medication also help to reveal and strengthen functionality due to the patient's "correct" medication color perception. Blue is supposed to be for a good night's sleep (calming and relaxing effect), and as mentioned before, dynamic red for speedy pain relief (active, fast, and vibrant) (Morton, 2004).
Research showed that yellow color initiates a feeling of hunger (Noor, 2002). Thus, McDonald's chose this color purposely and very successfully, since the color used in the brand name trademark targets this essentially vital feeling (of hunger) in potential consumers, and impacts their desire to buy. In recent times, this color was successfully adapted by other fast food restaurants such as Burger King, Subway, Sonic, and Popeyes.
     Aircraft and cruise liner designers, and restaurant architects intuitively avoided avocado/lime green color since this has been known to initiate nausea (Morton, 2000). Blue stimulates responsibility, trustworthiness and compassion (Noor, 2002). This color helped IBM create a powerful brand. It is also favored by other companies such as American Express and Federal Express. Being one of the most preferred colors worldwide, blue is the safest choice for a new company. Green is considered to possess great healing power to soothe pains, and is the most restful color to the human eye. Research suggests that people working in green environments have fewer stomach aches. Teething infants are calmer in the green environment too (www.colormatters.com).
     As we have seen from the examples mentioned above, colors can have a significant impact on people's emotions. Therefore, ifused wisely, the right choice of colors can contribute to a company's success.
COLORS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES
Colors and Cultures
     Colors have the power to create brand imagery and convey moods. Blue sunny skies or grey, rainy days, green plants or dull stems, all affect our mood. It is likely that such basic relationships affect, to some extent, the human feelings about color regardless of age and culture (Byrnes, 1983). Most probably, wide popularity of television, internet, and presence of chain stores contributed to the increasing popularity of diverse color acceptance.
     Adams and Osgood (1973) observed a cross-cultural universality in color preferences. They ranked the color preferences according to the meanings of: evaluation, potency, and activity through different cultures. Red, green and blue had almost the same results worldwide. Blue and green scored high on evaluation. Red had the highest score in potency followed by blue. Red also scored higher on activity ranking.
     Madden et al. (2000) provided the table of the three most preferred colors in eight different countries (Please see Table 1). Their research also supported the "blue phenomenon" theory that blue is the most favorite color among those nations (a mean of6.0 on a seven-point scale).
     Madden et al. (2000) further analyzed two-color-combination preference patterns in these countries. Interestingly enough, their research illustrated that even though some countries showed a particular dislike for one or another color, they liked it as a pair in a two-color combination. In addition, while some countries preferred color combinations made with two colors having similar or complementary meanings, others preferred color combinations having dissimilar meanings (Please see Table 2).
     Thus, results of this study clearly indicate that standardization of packaging, logo or product designs should not be accepted without a thorough analysis of color and color combination preferences in different cultures. There is indeed a vital need for global marketing managers to consider these differences across cultures.
     Despite the fact that some universally accepted notions of color exist, there are many differences found in color preferences among various cultures. For example, American men prefer richer neutral and blue colors, whereas European men like brighter and warmer tones (Paul, 2002). Orange, for instance, is one of the least favorite colors in USA, but is the most preferred color in the Netherlands (Morton, 2000).
Meanings of Colors
     Preferences for particular colors are most often determined by the meanings those colors connote in
different countries. Meanings are attached to colors almost the same way meanings are attached to words. Hence, it is critical for a global marketer to determine the correct color that implies the right meaning when going globally. Color is influential at every level of the marketplace, from brand logo, image, signage, display, packaging, and the product itself. Marketers have to be aware that different nationalities perceive the message derived from their usage of particular colors differently.
     In the West, blue has different political connotations. In Britain, for instance, blue is associated with the Conservative Party, red with the Labor Party, and orange with the Liberal Party. In contrast, in USA, blue is associated with the liberal-leaning Democrat Party, and red with the conservative-leaning Republican Party. Almost all over the world, green is attributed to environmentalists and their political action groups.
     In China, black and red signifies happiness. Card manufacturers attract their Chinese customers offering black and red color wedding invitations. However, that would not work in USA, since Americans assume that white and silver or gold are the colors associated with weddings. On the contrary, white is the color of mourning in China and is considered to be totally inappropriate for weddings. In addition, if a married Indian woman wears clothes in unrelieved white, she is inviting widowhood and unhappiness (www.colormatters.com ).
     Red and white mean celebration for Japanese, however, is used for ritual decorations in Melanesia, and means the Sacred Heart of the Catholic Church in Mexico. In the West, green is very often associated with envy, whereas the Middle-Eastern countries interpret this color as a total opposite. For example, it was the most sacred color for Egyptians, representing the hope and joy for spring. It is also sacred for Muslims (Madden at aI., 2000). In USA, orange carries a meaning of "cheap". However, Hindus consider orange (or saffron) the most sacred color. Thus, it is evident that for example an orange logo would have a different association in India compared to USA.
     Jacobs et al. (1991) conducted a research on colors and their associations with thirteen words in four countries: Japan, China, South Korea, and the United States. The results showed distinct similarities and dissimilarities across cultures. People in all four cultures associated blue with high quality, black with power and expensive things, and red with love. Purple had opposite meaning in Japan and the United States. It signified expensive products in Japan, and inexpensive in USA.
     Madden et al. (2000) found that similarities and significant differences existed among various countries with regard to color meanings. In all eight cultures a consistent pattern of color clusters emerged: blue + green + white, black + brown. It indicated that consumers in each culture associated these colors with similar meanings, however, the meanings differed by culture. Other clusters were also very common: gold + orange + yellow and purple + (gold + orange + yellow). Red, however, was a single color that did not cluster with other colors at all.
     In all eight cultures, blue + green + white were associated with such meanings as: "peaceful", "gentle", and "calming". However, in some cultures it also had an additional meaning of "beautiful" (Brazil, Hong Kong, PRC, and the United States) and "pleasant" (Austria, Colombia, the U.S., PRC and Taiwan).
     Black and brown were associated with the meanings of "sad" and "stale" in all eight different cultures. However, in some of them they had additional meanings such as "formal" (Brazil, Colombia, PRC, and Taiwan) and "masculine" (Austria, Hong Kong the United States).
     Gold, orange, and yellow raised the concern for these researchers because they were not associated with any given color meanings. Red was associated with the meanings of "active", "hot", and "vibrant". In addition, in most of these countries it was also associated with "emotional" and "sharp". Moreover, two of the Asian countries (PRC and Taiwan) indicated it as "pleasant" too.
     Many marketers know what their chosen logo and packaging colors mean. For instance, in USA, Minute Maid juices, Pasta LaBella, Miller Beers', and Miller Reserve reveal a meaning of sophistication by using a primarily black color for their labeling or packaging. Nike's superior design and advanced­performance sport shoes also usually came in black and white signaling these meanings to the customers.
(Schiffman and Kanuk, 2004)
     Fast food and fine dining restaurants also reveal their specialization to their target customers through the intensive color use. To illustrate, fast food restaurants use bright colors such as yellow, red, and orange (meaning: cheerful, inexpensive and fast) whereas expensive restaurants use quite different, sophisticated color combinations- white, shades of tan, or muted colors (meaning expensive and fine service) (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2004).
     Kanner (2005) provided insightful color perceptions of the western consumers attached to particular products, color and color meaning associations with strong color brands (Please see Table 3). He provides an astute suggestion to coffee producers that consumers actually distinguish coffee on basis of the packaging color. Thus, keeping in mind the existing perception, marketers should keep the packaging consistent. Coffee in blue should be mild, coffee in yellow should be weak, coffee in red should taste rich, and coffee in dark brown should be very strong, in order to target the right consumer with the particular preferences.
     Thus, color is a marketing tool able to make marketers job easier and more effective, if used appropriately. By choosing the right color, a successful marketer is able to target the right customer and
encourage him/her to make a buying decision.
Colors and Ethnic Groups
     In the United States younger people are being brought up in a diverse culture influenced by different ethnic groups. Being culturally open-minded and brought up in a non- discriminative environment, Americans are easily influenced in color preferences too. For instance, African Americans like deep saturated colors, such as reds, yellows, and browns. Paul (2002) observed a number of students from Africa at the University of Hawaii and made a conclusion that their color preferences linked towards "sandy hues, primarily burnt oranges and browns." On the contrary, Cooper (1994) suggests that black people are more open to experiments with color. She assures us that "if chartreuse is the hot color, they want chartreuse; if brown is hot, they want brown."
     Hispanics usually are drawn to brighter, stronger, and more intense colors. When marketing to the Hispanic population, one ought to warm-up the palette by adding yellow and red tones. Indeed, one's palette is very often dependent on the light where people live, and how they spend their days (Paul, 2002). Therefore, we currently see a strong influence in the Hispanic market of red, yellow and orange being reflected in their consumer products. Young women, especially African- Americans and Hispanics, are eager to try the latest colors, as they are the trendsetters (Cooper, 1994). In order to speed up the acceptability of a particularly novel color in the general public, marketers ought to target these segments whenever they introduce a new product with a novel color.
     With globalization we're seeing more colors from Asia in the red and yellow family, as well as from Europe, which has a more classical influence (Paul, 2002). They are especially appealing to the younger generation and inevitably will catch up with the baby boomers' tastes. As baby boomers are approaching fifties and sixties, they are going to want to show how young they are by trying new colors. Thus, they are expected to adopt the new colors faster and easier. The marketers have to be prepared for more rapid color changes.
     A study published in Brandweek suggested that while blue was indeed the most favorite color among all the ethnic segments in the United States, specific ethnic differences in color preferences do exist. For example, twenty nine percent of Native Americans favored purple and fourteen percent preferred pink. However, African Americans, Asians, Latinos, and Whites had a very low preference for pink. Asians had significantly higher preferences towards orange and loathe green than other ethnic segments. An aversion to yellow color was observed among Native Americans, while pink was disliked by the majority of African Americans (Greenberg, 2002).
     Thus, for a marketing strategy to be successful, the marketing team has to know their targeted customer preferences in order not to make an uninformed initial mistake by choosing the least favorite color of the target customer.
Product's Personality/ Generally Accepted Colors
     Color that is suitable for one product and is consistent with its meaning might be a terrible choice for another product. For example, bright neons and purples are very popular colors in the active wear apparel not only in USA, Mexico, and Brazil, but also in Europe and Japan. These are fun, high-energy products. At the same time, such colors would be inappropriate for home furnishings and appliances. Blue- green is very popular in home furnishing accents, house wares, and economy cars. This is a light, upbeat and fun color. However, we would never see Lexus in these colors, since it does not mach this car's personality which is sophisticated, elegant, exclusive, and high-price (Cooper, 1994).
CONCLUSION
     Color is one of the most significant factors in global marketing that has the power to affect the success of a particular product and/or business. Thus, choosing the right color is vitally important. Color perceptions, meanings, and preferences vary by cultures and ethnicities. Therefore, global companies should examine their target markets, observe color trends and fashions, research consumer perceptions and preferences, strengthen the product design and company's logo with the appropriate color carrying a desired meaning, and find its unique way to make a particular color a tool in the triumphant business creation.

REFERENCES

Adams, F. M., & Osgood, C. (1973), "A Cross-cultural Study of the Affective Meanings of Color,"
      Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 4, 135-156.
Blackwell, Roger D., Paul W. Miniard, and James F. Engel, (2005), Consumer Behavior. South-Western College Publications: Cincinnati, OH
Cooper, Mimi (1994), "The Color of Money May Actually be Fuchsia," Discount Merchandiser, 34, 5 (May), 66.
Friedman, Thomas L. (2000), The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization. Anchor: New York, NY
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Jacobs, Laurence, Charles Keown, Reginald Worthley, and Kyung-Il Ghymn (1991), "Cross­Cultural Color Comparisons: Global Marketers Beware!"
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Madden, Thomas, J., Kelly Hewlett, and Martin S. Roth (2000), "Managing Images in Different Cultures:
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Morton, Jill (2000), "Quirks ofthe Color Quest," www.colormatters.com.
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Schiffman, Leon G. and Leslie Lazar Kanuk (2004), Consumer Behavior. Pearson Education, Inc.: Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Table 1: Means for Color Liking Ratings

Table 2: Logo Color and Color Selected to Pair with Logo Color

Table 3: Color Perceptions of Western Consumers