Generational Perspectives on Interracial Relationships:
A Comparison of Parent and Child Views
Luke Tse, Michael Firmin, Chi-en Hwang, Stephanie Firebaugh
CedarvilleUniversity
Introduction
Interracial relationships have experienced intense struggles and obstacles in the history of the United States. Many areas of the country forbade interracial relationships, and punishment included imprisonment and even death (Todd & Mckinney, 1992). As recent as in 1967, sixteen states still banned interracial marriages until the Supreme Court declared those laws unconstitutional in the landmark case of Loving v. Commonwealth of Virginia. Slavery, prejudice, and stereotypes perpetuated discrimination against interracial relationships. Researchers reported a change in societal attitudes during recent decades with more individuals engaging in interracial dating and marriage (Fiebert, Karamol, Kasdan, 2000; Gurung & Duong, 1999).
The United States, historically, has been a nation of immigrants. Through much of its history, segregation had been the norm, particularly in southern states. Political and social struggles to create racial harmony in the U.S. are common knowledge. Beyond desegregation and other racial equality efforts, additional factors also have contributed to an increase in interracial relationships. With growing parental openness to diverse populations came increased opportunities for their children socially to interact with people of racial and ethnic backgrounds beyond their own. Since the larger percentage of families in America live on dual-incomes (U.S. Census, 2004), demands of jobs and careers necessitate that children be exposed to diverse social contexts. For example, programs and activities implemented to meet the needs of latchkey children have included extended-day programs in public schools, after-school hotlines, and neighborhood “block mothers” (Lamorey, Robinson, Rowland, Coleman, 1998). Along with other unofficial programs and activities, these likely have contributed to children developing viewpoints and social comforts beyond the influences of their primary caregivers. Lovstuen (2001) suggested that with such free-thinking spirits come greater interests in interracial relationships.
Knox, Zusman, Buffington, and Hemphill (2000) reported that interracial dating attitudes among college students showed almost half of the participants in their sample possessed participation interests in interracial relationships and about one-fourth previously had dated interracially. With increasing contact opportunities in integrated settings such as college campuses, students have higher likelihoods of engaging in relationship-building interactions. Yancey and Yancey (1998) suggested that the “availability” of individuals for friendship was perhaps the most probable reason for interracial relationships. They also speculated that individuals might interracially date (a) for the same “intangible” reasons of love and compatibility as individuals who date within their own race, (b) because of familiarity or desired immersion with a particular culture, and (c) because some might have “preferences” for particular skin colors as others might have for hair or eye colors.
Openness to interracial relationships varies among generations. Generally, the older generations have been more opposed to interracial relationships while younger generations have tended to view interracial relationships most favorably (Lovstuen, 2001; Todd & Mckinney, 1992). Since family interactions provide the first model of socialization and relationship formation, parental and family perspectives play a salient role in shaping an individual’s openness to interracial relationships. Miller, Olson, and Fazio (2004) reported that white female participants expected higher disapproval of interracial relationships only if they also reported their parents were racist. Culture and race seem to exert a particular influence on family interactions regarding racial attitudes (Foeman & Nance, 2002; Lovstuen, 2001; McFadden & Moore, 2001). African-American families tend to base their family structures using matriarchal systems. Caucasian families, in contrast, tend to be more patriarchal. For example, in many African-American families, the mother has the most influence on the dating preferences of children, whereas the father has more influence in Caucasian households (Knox et al., 2000).
Many interracial couples do not have the full support of parents or family members. McFadden and Moore (2001) reported that since the family was a vital support system for couples in their study, lack of support could be detrimental to the health of such relationships. Family functions and reunions can be awkward for the couple, and one or both may choose not to attend (Foeman & Nance, 1999). Another reason for lack of parental and family support can be unfamiliarity of family members with interacting closely with other races and not feeling comfortable in multiethnic settings.
While substantial research has focused on views of interracial relationships, few researchers have addressed parental and family perspectives and influences on their children. In particular, the research literature shows only a handful of comparative studies regarding parent and child perspectives on interracial relationships to exist. Consequently, additional research addressing generational views of interracial relationships are needed due to the increase of these relationships in society and the paucity of what is known regarding this important societal issue. In sum, researchers have needs to understand better the dynamics involved within family, racial, and relationship milieus.
In this study, we addressed one specific element of the broader domain of relationship diversity. In particular, we explored how generational differences might relate to openness to interracial relationships. We also were interested in how closely college students predicted their parents’ views on interracial dating and marriage. Based on the research literature surveyed, we believed that the college students would be more open and favorable towards interracial relationships when compared to their parents. Research has already indicated that younger generations appeared more favorable towards interracial dating and marriage (Knox et al., 2000; Lovstuen, 2001). More importantly, we anticipate that students inaccurately would predict their parents’ views regarding these relationships to be more favorable than how they actually would express their own true views on the subject.
Method
Participants
Ninety-four students enrolled in a General Psychology course at a private, selective, comprehensive institution in the Midwest were solicited for the study. We administered a self-report survey instrument created by the authors to record the students’ and their respective parents’ personal openness to interracial relationships. General Psychology is a general education course in this particular institution with a wide mixture of majors (engineering, nursing, education, business, liberal arts majors, and so forth). The class represented a relatively wide cross-section of the student body, and the mostly Caucasian sample reflects the university census. Questionnaires with students’ and their respective parents’ completed responses were used for the study. Forty-six sets were useable for the research study (N = 138). The response rate was 49%. Reasons that a number of questionnaires were not useable include parental decisions not to participate, inability to access parents (e.g., overseas), and incomplete questionnaires. As a result, 13 male and 33 female students were part of the completed study. Their ages ranged from 18 to 23 with a mean of 19.1. Some parents did not indicate their ages on the questionnaires. The age range among those who did were 39 to 58 for mothers (n = 43) and 39 to 63 for fathers (n = 42). The age means were 47.3 and 48.8, respectively.
Procedure
Students first were given the questionnaires to complete during a class period. After collecting the completed questionnaires from the students, we subsequently provided packets to the students containing two questionnaires and two return envelopes for their parents. We also included a cover letter in each packet explaining the research instructions. Furthermore, both students and parents were instructed to refrain from discussing the topic and questionnaire before its completion. Students either personally delivered or mailed the questionnaires to their parents. To ensure privacy, parents placed the completed questionnaires in the envelopes provided and sealed them before returning the questionnaires to the students.
Materials
The general questionnaire constructs for both students and parents were nearly identical. Beyond basic demographic information, all were asked if they either would, or have ever, dated individuals who were not of their own racial identities, and, if they had, to provide the number of individuals they had dated in the respective racial categories provided. The racial categories included “American Indian/Alaska Native,” “Asian,” “Asian Indian,” “Black/Afro-American,” “Caucasian/Euro-American,” “Hispanic/ Latino,” “Middle-Eastern/Arab-American,” and “Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.”
Students were asked specific questions in the following combination: “father/mother would approve of my DATING/MARRYING interracially.” Similarly, parents were asked specific questions in the following combination: “I would approve of my child(ren) dating/marrying interracially.” Using a 6-point Likert scale, all were asked to indicate their levels of agreement to these statements with 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 6 indicating “strongly agree.”
Students were asked further to consider the same list of racial categories and rate from 1 to 6 (with 1 being “least difficult” to 6 being “most difficult”) how both of their parents might experience difficulties with their children having relationship with each of these racial groups of people. Finally, students were asked to rate (on a scale of 1 to 6, with 1 being “least discouraging” and 6 being “most discouraging”) factors which might discourage them from dating or marrying interracially. The factors included parental disapproval, past personal or family member experiences, objections from extended family members and peers, social stigma or prejudice towards self and children, holding different religious beliefs from partner, and personal religious teachings/beliefs against interracial relationships. As previously stated, the questionnaires for parents were nearly identical in construct except the information was based upon personal responses or reactions as opposed to students’ perceptions or projections of their parents’ sentiments.
Results
Thirty-four students (74%) reported that they would date someone other than their own race, but only 6 of the 34 students (13% overall) had actually done so at the time of the study. Nine mothers (20%) and seven fathers (15%) indicated they had dated someone other than their own race. Only two couples, consisting of both spouses, had dated interracially prior to their marriages.
Student Perspectives
When considering students’ perspectives towards their parents, consistently, no difference was found between male and female students. The majority of students either “strongly agreed” or “agreed” (56%) with the statement that their fathers would approve of their dating interracially. The number of students who either “slightly agreed” or “slightly disagreed” that their fathers would give such approval were equal at 16% respectively. Regarding marriage, the majority of students strongly agreed or agreed (51%) with the statement that their fathers would approve of their marrying interracially. The percentages of students who slightly agreed or slightly disagreed were 18% and 11% respectively. While not considerably different, indications of “disagree” and “strongly disagree” with regard to the statement that their fathers would approve of dating or marrying interracially increased from 13% (dating) to 20% (marrying). In other words, students felt that their fathers would disapprove of their marrying interracially more than their fathers would disapprove their dating someone of another race.
Regarding dating, the majority of students either “strongly agreed” or “agreed” (61%) that their mothers would approve of them dating interracially. When asked if their mothers would approve of their marrying interracially, those “strongly agreeing” and “agreeing” with this statement fell to a notable 48%. Correspondingly, those who “disagreed” and “strongly disagreed” with the statement that their mothers would approve of their dating and marrying interracially increased from 17% to 24% respectively. In other words, while students generally felt that their parents would disapprove of them marrying interracially more than they would disapprove their dating someone of another race, this opinion was more acute towards mothers than fathers.
Next, students were asked to rate factors which might discourage their dating or marrying interracially. The foremost factor was the father’s disapproval, with the responses falling on opposite ends of the response spectrum. Thirty percent of the students indicated that their fathers’ disapprovals would be “least discouraging” to their dating interracially and a slightly less percentage of students (28%) indicated the same to be true regarding marrying interracially. On the other hand, over one-quarter (26%) of the students rated their fathers’ disapprovals as being “most discouraging” to their dating interracially and a slightly higher percentage of students (28%) rated the same discouragement to marrying interracially. These findings were similar for mothers: 33% rated their mothers’ disapproval as least discouraging to interracial dating and 30% to interracial marriage. Conversely, 24% rated their mothers’ disapproval as most discouraging to interracial dating and 26% as most discouraging to interracial marriage.
While social stigma or prejudice towards students themselves generally would not discourage them from dating or marrying interracially, social stigma or prejudice towards their children drew the greatest mixture of reactions among students. Attributions of ratings were evenly distributed across the range of “least discouraging” to “most discouraging.” Concerns for possible social stigma or prejudice suffered by their children have similar negative effects toward their desires to date or marry interracially.
The only criterion, which drew the most consistent discouragement to dating and marrying interracially, was holding different religious beliefs between students and their partners. On a scale of 1 to 6 (with 6 being “most discouraging”), 87% indicated a 5 or 6 for discouragement to date interracially and 89% indicated a 5 or 6 for discouragement to marry interracially. This means that most would not date or marry individuals of another race if they also expressed different religious beliefs. Other factors which, generally, would not discourage students from dating or marrying interracially included past personal experiences, family-member experiences, extended-family experiences, peer disapprovals or rejections, and, if any, personal religious teachings/beliefs against interracial relationships.
Finally, students were asked to rate how their parents might have difficulties with each of the race groups of people listed. Consistently, about two-thirds of students rated their parents’ reactions to be between a 1 and 3 for all the racial categories. The obvious exception was the Caucasian/Euro-American category which most rated a 1 (least difficult). Overall, the majority of students felt positive that their parents would not have significant difficulties with any of the racial categories of people whom they might choose to date or marry interracially.
Parental Perspectives
On a scale of 1 to 6 with 1 being “strongly disapprove” and 6 being “strongly approve,” parents reported that they “slightly disapprove” their children to date or marry interracially. Differences between approval expressed for dating or marrying interracially are very slight. Fathers indicated a 3.3 for dating and 3.0 for marrying and mothers indicated a 3.4 for dating and 3.3 for marrying interracially. Mothers are slightly more approving of their children to date and marry interracially than fathers (see Figure 1).
On the other hand, mothers did express somewhat stronger disapprovals of their sons to date interracially than disapprovals expressed of their daughters. Specifically, 23% of mothers “strongly disagreed” that they would approve their sons to date interracially verses a mere 6% of mothers expressing such strong sentiments towards their daughters. When including the percentages of mothers who “disagreed” with the statement that they would approve of their children to date interracially, 46% of mothers disapproved of their sons to date interracially as opposed to a lower 30% of mothers disapproving. When it came to interracial marriages, 54% of mother disapproved or strongly disapproved of their sons to marry interracially. Again, this was in contrast to a lower 34% of mothers disapproving or strongly disapproving of their daughters to marry interracially.
At the other end of the spectrum, mothers’ approving or strongly approving of their sons to date (31%) was similar to that of their daughters (33%). However, unlike the relatively consistent findings in approval of interracial dating between sons and daughters, their approval of their sons to marry interracially (23%) was somewhat lower than their approval of their daughters (31%).
With regard to factors which would discourage their children from dating or marrying interracially, both parents rated themselves as similarly as their children did concerning the effects of parental disapprovals. Between one quarter and one third of mothers rated their disapproval as having “most discouragement” while a similar number of mothers rated their disapproval as having “least discouragement” for their children. With regard to dating or marrying interracially, half of the fathers rated themselves equally on these bi-polar dimensions.
When asked about the effects of their spouses’ disapproval on their children’s choice to date or marry interracially, wives rated their husbands’ influence similarly as themselves, and consistent with the above distributions. Husbands, on the other hand, seemed unsure as to how their wives’ disapprovals might discourage or not discourage their children from engaging in interracial relationships. Attributions of ratings were quite evenly distributed across the entire range from “least discouraging” to “most discouraging.”
Overall, both parents were mixed in their perspectives on how social stigma or prejudice towards their children might influence their decisions to date or marry interracially. When considering social stigma or prejudice towards their grandchildren, mothers remained somewhat unsure as before while fathers tended to lean towards believing that it would have less discouraging effects upon their children to date or marry interracially. There were general agreements in opinion between fathers and mothers on this point.
Like their children, both parents believed that holding different religious beliefs between the interracial couple would pose the greatest discouragement to interracial dating and marriage relationships. On a scale of 1 to 6 (with 1 being “least discouraging” and 6 being “most discouraging”), 96% of mothers and 72% of fathers indicated a 5 or 6, which identified religious difference as the most significant factor that would discourage their children from engaging in interracial relationships.
Similar to the students, all parents were asked to consider a list of racial categories and rate, from 1 to 6 (with 1 being “least difficult” to 6 being “most difficult”), how they personally might experience difficulties with each of these racial groups of people. Negatively, both parents took exception to two groups of people. Around two-thirds of the fathers indicated numbers between 4 (moderately difficult) and 6 (most difficult) to their children’s dating or marrying Afro-Americans and just under two-thirds of the mothers indicated the same. Over half of the fathers indicated numbers between 4 and 6 to their children’s dating or marrying Arab-Americans and almost two-thirds of the mothers indicated the same. Fathers indicated a slightly greater level of difficulties than did mothers with their children dating or marrying Afro-Americans while mothers indicated a slightly greater level of difficulties than did fathers with their children dating or marrying Arab-Americans. The fathers’ sentiments were more negative toward Afro-Americans than Arab-Americans while the mothers’ sentiments were similar toward both.
Comparing Parent-Child Perspectives
The mean scores among students’ perspectives toward their father’s levels of approval for interracial dating were 4.2 (SD = 1.3) and 4.0 (SD = 1.4) for marriage. That is, they believed that their fathers would “slightly approve” of their dating and marrying interracially. The mean scores reported by fathers, on the other hand, were 3.3 (SD = 1.3) for dating and 3.0 (SD = 1.3) for marriage. That is, fathers “slightly disapproved” their children to date and marry interracially. The mean scores among students’ perspectives toward their mother’s levels of approval were 4.3 (SD = 1.4) for interracial dating and 4.0 (SD = 1.5) for marriage. That is, similar in perspectives towards their fathers, they believed that their mothers would “slightly approve” of their dating and marrying interracially. The mean scores reported by mothers, on the other hand, were 3.4 (SD = 1.5) for dating and 3.3 (SD = 1.5) for marriage. That is, mothers expressed that they “slightly disapproved” their children to date and marry interracially. In sum, parents were less approving of interracial relationship than their children thought they would be (see Figure 2).
In analyzing students’ perspectives toward their parents, whether in interracial dating or marriage relationships, females students accurately perceived that their fathers would disapprove of their dating interracially c2(20, N = 32) = 34.76, p = .02 but did not accurately perceived their fathers’ level of disapproval of interracial marriage. Female students did not perceive accurately their mothers’ level of disapproval of interracial dating, but they somewhat accurately perceived their mothers’ disapproval of interracial marriages c2(25, N = 32) = 39.39, p = .03. Male students did not accurately predict their parents’ level of disapproval of their dating or marrying interracially. Other than the two exceptions noted, all students underestimated the extent to which their parents disapproved of their children to engage in interracial relationships.
On this next position, opinions were polarized concerning the parents’ influence upon their children’s interracial dating habits and marriages. As mentioned, on the one hand, between one-quarter to one-third of parents and children believed that parental disapprovals would be most discouraging to the children’s dating or marrying interracially. On the other hand, another one-quarter to one-third of parents and students felt exactly the opposite way: that parental disapproval would have little influence over the children’s choices. Figures 3 and 4 are comparisons between how students and parents perceived the impact that each respective parent’s “disapproval” would have on their children’s marrying interracially.
Further analyses were made to consider those students who felt a particular way, vis-à-vis whether their respective parents might feel the same. The answer was, generally, no. For students who indicated that parental disapproval would or would not discourage their choices or decisions, their respective parents did not express corresponding beliefs. The only exception was for students who stated that their fathers’ disapproval would be most discouraging to their marrying interracially, 77% of their respective fathers also indicated a belief that their disapproval would either “discourage” or “strongly discourage” their children to marry interracially.
However, all were in agreement that holding different religious beliefs would most discourage children to date or marry interracially. That is, students and their parents agreed that religious beliefs were the most significant factor that would influence students in our sample regarding whether or not to enter into an interracial dating relationship in the first place. Should a person be in such a relationship, it was the most significant factor to consider where interracial marriages were concerned (see Figure 5).
Where dating or marrying specific racial groups was concerned, students inaccurately predicted their parents’ views on dating and marrying two racial categories of people—Black/Afro-American and Middle-East/Arab-American. Most students’ attributions of their parents’ acceptance were positive when their parents, instead, expressed the exact opposite sentiments. About two-thirds of students felt that their parents would have little oppositions to their dating or marrying Afro-Americans or Arab-Americans. Respectively, the percentage range was between 61% and 64% for Afro-Americans and between 62% and 70% for Arab-Americans.
However, just over half to two-thirds of parents expressed the contrary. The percentages of fathers who disapproved (from slightly to strongly) of their children’s dating and marrying Arab-Americans were 56% and 53%, respectively, and the percentages for Afro-Americans were at 67% for either. The percentages of mothers who disapproved dating and marrying Arab-Americans were 68% and 59%, and the percentages for Afro-Americans were 61% and 59%, respectively. Figures 6 and 7 are comparisons of the students’ and their respective parents’ attitudes with regard to marrying Blacks
Discussion
The findings confirmed the two initial hypotheses: students were more open to interracial relationships than were their parents, and that students inaccurately concluded their parents’ attitudes toward interracial dating and marriage. Fathers were less approving of their children to date and marry interracially than mothers. Both were less approving of interracial marriages then dating relationships.
While almost three-quarters of the students reported that they would or had dated interracially, less than 15% of students had actually done so at the time of the study. We believe the primary reasons for this discrepancy were twofold: first, the demographic nature of the student body in this private, comprehensive institution traditionally has been Caucasian. While the university appeared to be making strides in expanding its population diversity, the census remained predominantly middle-class Caucasian-Americans. Second, the location of the institution did not expedite interactions with people of other racial or socio-economic backgrounds. It is a residential university situated in a rural setting. As such, traveling to surrounding communities or metropolitan areas require purposeful planning.
It is noteworthy that both male and female students felt that their mothers would be less inclined to allow them to marry interracially than would their fathers. Traditionally, mothers have been assumed to be more relationally inclined and may, therefore, be more open to interracial relationships than fathers. The fact that students believed their mothers to be more restricting towards such relationships, especially in a marriage context, may seem to run against the grain of common assumptions. Mothers did seem to confirm this sentiment at least as far as their sons were concerned. Results indicated that they expressed stronger opinions with regard to their sons’ marrying interracially than they did to their daughters. While no major differences were found in the mothers’ attitudes towards their sons and daughters, the difference between 23% of mothers strongly disapproving of their sons to marry interracially and 6% of mothers strongly disapproving of their daughters to do the same does seem substantial. This mother-son dyad, wherein mothers seem to possess a stronger sentiment against their sons—more so than daughters—to marry interracially (and the children seemingly to concur), was somewhat surprising and should bear further investigation. Despite this finer point, generally speaking, fathers did express greater disapproval than did mothers in allowing their children to date or marry interracially.
While neither male nor female students felt differently about their parents’ level of approval to date or marry interracially, there was a difference where the parents were concerned. While fathers seemed less approving than did mothers, the latter expressed more strong negative sentiments regarding their sons dating and marrying interracially than they expressed regarding their daughters. Taken together, parents were less approving of interracial relationships than their children had anticipated.
Concerning those factors that would discourage students to date or marry interracially, both parents and children agreed that the following were not significant: past personal experience, family-member experience, extended-family objection, peer disapproval or rejection, and personal religious teachings/beliefs against interracial relationships. Opinions and attitudes were split where parental disapprovals were concerned. As identified, about one-quarter to one-third of students, fathers, and mothers felt that parental approvals would have detrimental effects upon the children’s choice to date or marry interracially, while an equal number of students, fathers, and mothers felt that parental disapprovals would have little effect on the children’s interracial relationship choices and decisions. The most significant dynamic was that, among those who identified their fathers’ opinions as being most influential, many of those students’ fathers (77%) also identified their personal opinion as the greatest influencing factor upon their children’s choices and decisions. This was important in that of the four family positions—father, mother, son, daughter—fathers, overall, held the greatest disapproval towards interracial relationships. Since the fathers’ opinions toward interracial relationships were overriding for a substantial number of individuals, it would stand to reason that the fathers’ strong influences might attribute to fewer interracial marriages than possible.
Students also inaccurately predicted their parents’ views on dating and marrying between two racial groups of people: Black/Afro-American and Middle-Eastern/Arab-American. For these two groups, most students’ predictions were not even close. In fact, they predicted the wrong direction and level: that their parents would have little or no oppositions when, in reality, there were some strong oppositions. This dynamic historically is consistent for Afro-Americans and politically understandable (not necessarily acceptable) for Arab-Americans given the tensions arising from the hostage crisis during president Carter’s administration to post 9-11 sentiments in some American thinking. Whereas relational divides based upon racial or political lines remain a greater distinction for older generations than for the younger, the good news, perhaps, is that younger generations seem to hold on to relational ideals beyond color, cultural, political differences despite certain parental influences. On the other hand, arguments could be made that idealism reflects inexperience or a lack of knowledge. Perhaps parents are better able to gauge certain socio-political realities (e.g., the seeming perpetual tensions between the United States of American and several Arab nations) that compel apprehension. Younger generations may not comprehend such longstanding realities. Their hope for peace has yet to be made weary by prolonged political strife.
The most notable exception to developing or maintaining interracial relationships concerns differences in religious beliefs. All agreed that religious differences posted the greatest discouragements to interracial relationship. Religious convictions affect individual senses of identity. It is explicable that even when one is able to look past such superficialities as skin tone and political dedications that an individual sense of constancy with the Supreme or religious sincerity should present the greatest obstacle to interracial, or any, relationships.
In conclusion, comparisons between mothers’ and fathers’ approval of their children to date or to marry interracially have yielded interesting, though not entirely surprising, results. Overall, fathers were less approving than mothers to their children’s interracial relationships. Both were far less approving than their children had anticipated. Two racial groups presented the greatest gap of opinions between parents and children—Afro-Americans and Arab-Americans. Religious differences between couples were the single most consistent factor that would discourage couples from engaging in interracial relationships.
Limitations and Future Research
One limitation to this study is a lack of diversity in the sample group. Participants primarily were Caucasians enrolled in a private, comprehensive university comprising a homogeneous racial category. Though the results did not convey a sense of ethnocentrism, future research should include both larger samples sizes and greater diversity among participants.
A second limitation is that while a study like this may indicate present realities and trends, it does not provide concrete rationales to explain results. Future research, while expanding the power of inference via quantitative means, should also include qualitative methodologies so as to probe for motivations and values for and against interracial relationships, especially as they pertain to parent-child perspectives and attitudes. Both quantitative and qualitative research could enhance understandings and insights to generational similarities and differences in this issue.
Topically, studies can further elaborate the parent-child dynamics where interracial relationships were concerned, giving particular focus on the mother-son dyad. All dyadic relationships, in fact, between each of the parents and the respective sons and daughters are necessary for evaluation. Similarly, another area of focus concerns the bi-polar perspectives of how parental disapproval may or may not play a part in a child’s choice or decision to date or marry interracially. This point also touches on the qualities of intergenerational relationships and their interconnectedness or reciprocating influences on numerous social issues in addition to racial relationships.
Finally, students were accurate to perceive that their parents would be less open to their marrying interracially than dating interracially. However, they underestimated the intensity of their parents’ emotions and attitudes against such relationships, particularly against Blacks/Afro-Americans and Middle-Eastern/Arab-Americans. Many studies and media presentations have emphasized that racial tensions between Blacks and Whites and between Arab-Americans and the general population remain significant. Even so, studies should consider whether each succeeding generation has managed a narrowing of the gaps among the many racial groups despite the many ebbs and flows of political harmony. While differences between parents and students were evident in this study, future studies should also focus on parental influences (particularly paternal influences) on their children’s eventual mindsets and engagements in interracial relationships.
Figures
Figure 1. Comparison of fathers and mothers’ reported approval levels for their children to date or marry interracially.
 
Figure 2. Comparisons of students’ perspectives toward their respective parents’ levels of approval and the parents’ actual stated approval of their children to date or marry interracially.
Figure 3. Comparison of students’ and fathers’ perspectives concerning how a “father’s disapproval” would affect his respective child’s decision to marry interracially.
Figure 4. Comparison of students’ and mothers’ perspectives concerning how a “mother’s disapproval” would affect her respective child’s decision to marry interracially.
Figure 5. Comparison of students and their respective parents’ perspectives concerning how “different religious beliefs” would affect the students’ choices and decisions to marry interracially.
Figure 6. Comparison of students and their fathers’ reported levels of difficulties with regard to interracial marriages with Blacks/Afro-Americans or Middle-Eastern/Arab-Americans.
Figure 7. Comparison of students and their mothers’ reported levels of difficulties with regard to interracial marriages with Blacks/Afro-Americans or Middle-Eastern/Arab-Americans.
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